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AMD

Age-related Macular Degeneration

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a disabling eye condition that causes gradual decline of central vision. AMD affects a central area of the retina known as the macula, which is responsible for sharp central vision required for everyday activities such as reading, watching television, driving and facial recognition. Although AMD does not usually lead to complete blindness (peripheral vision is maintained), loss of central vision may have a major impact on a person’s independence and quality of life.

AMD is a complex disease and is thought to have several different causes. A number of genetic and environmental risk factors have been associated with the development of AMD.

Non-modifiable risk factors are age (increasing), race (white European), sex (female), family history & genetics (first degree relative).

Modifiable risk factors are smoking, diet (several eye health cookbooks have been written by professionals in the field), physical activity and hypertension.

AMD Incidence and Prevalence

Genetic Basis of AMD

AMD Symptoms

AMD Diagnosis

Retinal Disease Clinical Trials

AMD Therapies

Impacts and Costs of AMD

References to Bibliography

1. Wong WL, Su X, Li X, Cheung CMG, Klein R, Cheng CY, et al. Global prevalence of age-related macular degeneration and disease burden projection for 2020 and 2040: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Glob Health. 2014; 2(2).

2. Furtado JM, Jonas JB, Tapply I, Fernandes AG, Cicinelli MV, Arrigo A, et al. Global estimates on the number of people blind or visually impaired by age-related macular degeneration: a meta-analysis from 2000 to 2020. Eye. 2024; 38(11): 2070–2082. Available at: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41433-024-03050-z.

3. Fritsche LG, Igl W, Bailey JNC, Grassmann F, Sengupta S, Bragg-Gresham JL, et al. A large genome-wide association study of age-related macular degeneration highlights contributions of rare and common variants. Nat Genet. 2016; 48(2): 134–143.

4. Bhumika, Bora NS, Bora PS. Genetic Insights into Age-Related Macular Degeneration. Biomedicines. 2024; 12(7): 1479.

5. Ferris III FL, Wilkinson CP, Bird A, Chakravarthy U, Chew E, Csaky K, et al. Clinical Classification of Age-related Macular Degeneration. Ophthalmology. 2013; 120(4): 844–851. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2012.10.036.

6. García-Layana A, Cabrera-López F, García-Arumí J, Arias-Barquet L, Ruiz-Moreno JM. Early and intermediate age-related macular degeneration: Update and clinical review. Clin Interv Aging. 2017; 12: 1579–1587.

7. Flores R, Carneiro Â, Tenreiro S, Seabra MC. Retinal progression biomarkers of early and intermediate age-related macular degeneration. Life. 2022; 12(1).

8. Heesterbeek TJ, Lorés-Motta L, Hoyng CB, Lechanteur YTE, den Hollander AI. Risk factors for progression of age-related macular degeneration. Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics. 2020; 40(2): 140–170.

9. Kaszubski P, Ben Ami T, Saade C, Smith RT. Geographic Atrophy and Choroidal Neovascularization in the Same Eye: A Review. Ophthalmic Res. 2016; 55(4): 185–193.

10. Keenan TD, Agrón E, Domalpally A, Clemons TE, van Asten F, Wong WT, et al. Progression of Geographic Atrophy in Age-related Macular Degeneration: AREDS2 Report Number 16. Ophthalmology. 2018; 125(12): 1913–1928. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2018.05.028.

11. Schneiderman T, Gonzalez VH, Boyer DS, Rosen RB, Xavier S, Hu A, et al. Photobiomodulation Using the Valeda Multiwavelength Light Delivery System Demonstrates Significant Reduction in Risk for Vision Loss and Onset of Geographic Atrophy in Dry Age-Related Macular Degeneration. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2024; 65(7): 379.

12. Antonio-Aguirre B, Arevalo JF. Treating patients with geographic atrophy: are we there yet? Int J Retina Vitreous. 2023; 9(1).

13. Keenan TDL, Agrón E, Keane PA, Domalpally A, Chew EY. Oral Antioxidant and Lutein/Zeaxanthin Supplements Slow Geographic Atrophy Progression to the Fovea in Age-Related Macular Degeneration. Ophthalmology. 2024. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2024.07.014.

14. Śpiewak D, Drzyzga Ł, Dorecka M, Wyględowska-Promieńska D. Summary of the Therapeutic Options for Patients with Dry and Neovascular AMD. J Clin Med. 2024; 13(14): 4227.

15. Rudnicka AR, Jarrar Z, Wormald R, Cook DG, Fletcher A, Owen CG. Age and Gender Variations in Age-related Macular Degeneration Prevalence in Populations of European Ancestry: A Meta-analysis. Ophthalmology. 2012; 119(3): 571–580. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2011.09.027.

16. Holz FG, Strauss EC, Schmitz-Valckenberg S, van Lookeren Campagne M. Geographic Atrophy: Clinical Features and Potential Therapeutic Approaches. Ophthalmology. 2014; 121(5): 1079–1091. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2013.11.023.

17. Taylor DJ, Hobby AE, Binns AM, Crabb DP. How does age-related macular degeneration affect real-world visual ability and quality of life? A systematic review. BMJ Open. 2016; 6(12): e011504. Available at: http://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/6/12/e011504.abstract.

18. Sarda SP, Heyes A, Bektas M, Thakur T, Chao W, Intorcia M, et al. Humanistic and economic burden of geographic atrophy: A systematic literature review. Clinical Ophthalmology. 2021; 15: 4629–4644.

19. Retina International. Economic burden of late-stage Age Related Macular Degeneration in Bulgaria, Germany and the USA.  . JAMA (corrections) .

20. Antonio-Aguirre B, Arevalo JF. Treating patients with geographic atrophy: are we there yet? Int J Retina Vitreous. 2023; 9(1).

21. Heier JS, Cohen MN, Chao DL, Pepio A, Shiraga Y, Capuano G, et al. Phase 1 Study of JNJ-81201887 Gene Therapy in Geographic Atrophy Secondary to Age-related Macular Degeneration. Ophthalmology. 2024.

22. Singh DK, Nsaibia M, Kattala S, Neupane S, Ritts M, Upadhyay AK. Modifier Gene Approach Using OCU410 for Dry-AMD Therapy: One Gene-Multiple Targets. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2023; 64(8): 755.

23. Sivaprasad S, Chandra S, Kwon J, Khalid N, Chong V. Perspectives from clinical trials: is geographic atrophy one disease? Eye (Basingstoke). 2023; 37(3): 402–407.

24. Yehoshua Z, Rosenfeld PJ, Gregori G, Feuer WJ, Falcão M, Lujan BJ, et al. Progression of geographic atrophy in age-related macular degeneration imaged with spectral domain optical coherence tomography. Ophthalmology. 2011; 118(4): 679–686.

25. Wang J, Ying GS. Growth Rate of Geographic Atrophy Secondary to Age-Related Macular Degeneration: A Meta-Analysis of Natural History Studies and Implications for Designing Future Trials. Ophthalmic Res. 2021; 64(2): 205–215.

26. Anegondi N, Gao SS, Steffen V, Spaide RF, Sadda SVR, Holz FG, et al. Deep Learning to Predict Geographic Atrophy Area and Growth Rate from Multimodal Imaging. Ophthalmol Retina. 2023; 7(3): 243–252.

27. Keenan TDL. Geographic Atrophy in Age-Related Macular Degeneration: A Tale of Two Stages. Ophthalmology Science. 2023; 3(3).

28. Sunness JS, Rubin GS, Applegate CA, Bressler NM, Marsh MJ, Hawkins BS, et al. Visual Function Abnormalities and Prognosis in Eyes with Age-related Geographic Atrophy of the Macula and Good Visual Acuity. Ophthalmology. 1997; 104(10): 1677–1691. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0161-6420(97)30079-7.

29. Saftari LN, Kwon OS. Ageing vision and falls: A review. J Physiol Anthropol. 2018; 37(1).

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